The Red Army needed pilots, aircraft, and pressure on the enemy—immediately. So they did something profoundly unromantic and brutally practical: they took civilians who could fly and turned them into combat airmen.

Many of the women who became the Night Witches had been flying before the war. Civilian aero clubs were common in the Soviet Union, and flight was encouraged as a national skill. These weren’t cosplayers handed wings for morale photos. They were trained aviators, suddenly handed bombs instead of mailbags. Under the leadership of Marina Raskova, they were organized, uniformed, and sent to the front.

Their aircraft was the Polikarpov Po-2, which deserves special mention because it may be the least intimidating combat aircraft ever to terrify a modern army. Built of wood and fabric, slow enough to be outrun by some farm equipment, and equipped with little more than a compass and stubbornness, the Po-2 was not supposed to survive combat. That turned out to be its greatest strength.

The mission assigned to the regiment was night harassment bombing. This was not about destruction; it was about erosion. The goal was to deny German forces something every soldier needs more than ammunition: sleep. Night after night, the Po-2s would appear over German positions, often flying just above treetop level. At the last moment, the pilots would cut their engines and glide silently, releasing small bombs before disappearing back into the darkness.

That silence mattered. //

Psychologically, this was devastating. Armies can endure danger. They struggle against uncertainty. The Night Witches turned the night itself into an enemy. They forced the Germans to spend time, fuel, ammunition, and attention on an aircraft that cost almost nothing to operate. A single crew might fly multiple sorties in a single night, returning to refuel and rearm in primitive fields, then heading back out again.

The numbers tell the story. By the end of the war, the regiment had flown roughly 23,000 sorties. That is not a stunt. That is persistence weaponized. Each individual mission might have been minor, but together they created a constant, grinding pressure on German rear areas. Officers complained. Troops cursed. Morale eroded. The nickname “Night Witches” was not admiration—it was fear mixed with exhaustion.

This is the part modern audiences often miss. The Night Witches were not trying to win battles in the cinematic sense. They were trying to make the enemy miserable, distracted, and tired at scale. It was warfare by irritation, perfected through repetition. And it worked precisely because it was unconventional.

Desperate times reward asymmetric thinking. The Soviets didn’t wait to build perfect aircraft or ideal forces. They repurposed what existed. Civilian pilots became military crews. Trainers became bombers. Night became a weapon. The Night Witches are a textbook example of how nations under existential threat blur the line between civilian and soldier—not out of ideology, but necessity.

“The five experiments all succeeded, but none of them revolutionized our understanding of the corona,” he says in a disarmingly honest way about the flight’s immediate impact. “They all played their role in the normal progression of scientific knowledge, but there were no extraordinary results, it has to be said.” //

Léna doubts their incredible flight will ever be repeated. Today, space-based satellites that can watch the sun 24/7 and create permanent artificial eclipses have revolutionized our understanding of the nearest star to Earth—although observing eclipses on Earth is still useful for astronomy. //

“At the time, our knowledge of the solar corona was very very limited,” explains Léna. “Today we have far less need for eclipse flights from a scientific point of view because we can put missions like SOHO in space, which is doing essentially what we were aboard Concorde. Our observation methods have changed a lot, so I doubt if today we’d redo a mission like that.”

It’s often said that scientific inquiry leads to innovation, but the Concorde experiment is a reminder that sometimes innovation offers wild, unexpected dividends to science. Today, the exact plane that chased the eclipse in 1973 sits as a permanent exhibit at Le Bourget Air and Space Museum, complete with the special roof portholes and the eclipse mission logo on its fuselage. Léna, John Beckman and other engineers and astronomers were present for the 2013 unveiling, along with the late pilot André Turcat

The Normandy Invasion consisted of 5,333 Allied ships and landing craft embarking nearly 175,000 men. The British and Canadians put 75,215 troops ashore, and the Americans 57,500, for a total of 132,715, of whom about 3,400 were killed or missing, in contrast to some estimates of ten thousand.

The foregoing figures exclude approximately 20,000 Allied airborne troopers. Extensive planning was required to move all these troops.

The U.S. VII Corps sustained 22,119 casualties from 6 June to 1 July, including 2,811 killed, 13,564 wounded, 5,665 missing, and seventy-nine captured.

American personnel in Britain included 1,931,885 land, 659,554 air, and 285,000 naval—a total of 2,876,439 officers and men. While in Britain they were housed in 1,108 bases and camps.

Landmark books make these curiosities possible by taking children along on the journey, whether signing the Constitution or laying rails on the transcontinental railroad. Along the way they meet people who changed or shaped our country.

Now considered vintage (because of their age), these books were the first among historical, non-fiction books written for the middle grade reader. They were originally published by Random House in the 1940s, 50s and 60s in two categories: American and World. There are 122 titles in the American series and 63 titles in the World series all penned by award-winning authors (for example C. S. Forester, Margaret Cousins, James Daugherty and Sterling North) individually contracted to write for the series.

Teaching history chronologically? Wanting to learn more details about the life of an inventor or reformer? Why not add some living books, real books about real events and real people, to your study?

I compiled this chronological listing of Landmark books for two reasons. First, we have always intertwined the teaching of American and world history, reading a piece of historical fiction or biography and posting a representative picture on our time line which stretches the length of our hallway. Most recently, however, we joined a small living history co-op which teaches world history chronologically, focusing on a specific time period each year. We were curious if any of the books we had on our shelves would fit into our upcoming school year. We thought of our Landmark books.

Having a shelf full of Landmark books, I decided to arrange them chronologically (as best I could) so we can research and read from the time period which we will be studying. For those children in my family who prefer the “this looks interesting” method of learning, this chronological listing will be used as reference, should he or she try to place a specific event or person on our family timeline.

Americans do not learn history because we have forgotten how to tell history. According to a 2021 survey conducted by the American Historical Association, a majority of both conservatives and leftists viewed history as just a collection of facts forced upon them in high school and college. History cannot be a cure for social ills unless it is learned well. But when history is taught as dry facts, many students rightfully tune out.

For history to remedy poor political thinking or restore national identity, it must become an exciting, living story that holds deep meaning for our children. Children have not lost interest in compelling stories, nor have they stopped wanting to emulate charismatic characters. My 3-year-old wears his medieval knight costume like a second skin. If we want our high schoolers and college students to take seriously the lessons that history can teach, they must first fall in love with the story of history before they even open their first textbook. //

Unfortunately, you cannot walk to your nearest bookstore and pick up a Landmark box set. Even most libraries no longer carry them. They are scattered around private collections, used book stores, and eBay. Some of the titles can be found digitized on various websites. Several homeschool blogs list out the titles in chronological order. At least one small press has started reissuing individual titles in the Landmark series, but with 200 titles in the series, many more publishing houses and homeschool programs should join the effort. Influencers who want to help America rediscover its history should promote the series. Libraries, especially school libraries, should purchase them for their catalog.

“Men’s lives are changed in odd ways without their realizing it. A boat missed, a talk with a stranger, a thoughtless choice at the crossroads to turn right instead of left, or a knock on a door, and not only can a man’s living be altered but history can be given a new course.” This offhand remark from Landmark author John Mason Brown in his telling of Daniel Boone could be a motto for the series. A child’s reading of good history could change their life — and our nation.

The story of Iomega is one of genuine engineering innovation and the fickle nature of consumer technology. As with so many other juggernauts of its era, Iomega was eventually brought down by a new technology that simply wasn’t practical to counter.

The second 1974 Power Engineering article that Nick Touran has uncovered is Senior Editor Olds’ discussion of the massive jumps in power plant capital costs between 1965 and 1974 Power Plant Capital Costs Going Out of Sight.

The AEC required plant owners to report their estimate of the capital cost of any nuclear plants under construction, and update those estimates annually. Olds’ article is largely based on that data. All his dollar figures are in nominal dollars, the dollar of that year.

Figure 2. USA fossil plant costs bottomed out in 1966.

The paper is graced by a number of hand drawn, beautifully lettered graphics. Figure 2 shows that prior to 1967 fossil plant capital costs were falling reaching a low of $100/kW in nominal dollars in 1966. But in 1967, the cost jumped nearly 20% to $118. Unfortunately, Old does not take the fossil figures any further forward. But if he did he would see that 20% per year escalation continue unabated through 1974, Figure 3. //

Thanks to nuclear’s factor of 100,000 advantage in energy density over fossil, a technology that did not exist 15 years earlier, was working its way down a steep learning curve, and in 1967 was fully competitive with coal, when coal was as cheap as it ever was. Nuclear was insulated from both oil price and fossil pollution regulation.

But in 1967, a new omnipotent player emerged. In 1954, Congress had given the AEC complete and unfettered control over nuclear, both nuclear weapons and nuclear power. As Truman put it, atom power was “too important to be made the subject of profiteering”. The AEC had to both implement Mutually Assured Destruction, and promote and regulate nuclear power. The first responsibility included making sure everybody was petrified of the bomb.

Canute and the Waves: A Misunderstood Story
Canute the Great (985/95 to 1035) was the most successful ruler of the Anglo Saxon period. At the height of his power he was King of England, Denmark, Norway, parts of Sweden, and overlord of Scotland. He put an end to Viking attacks on Britain and paid off the standing army, thus abolishing the enormous taxes which had been used to pay them. He reinstated the rules of King Edgar, an earlier, well-respected English king, and attended the coronation in Rome of the Emperor Conrad II, resulting in his reputation as a true partner to Europe. His achievements all but forgotten, Canute is now mainly known for a single misinterpreted story: Canute and the Waves. //

“But the sea carried on rising as usual without any reverence for his person, and soaked his feet and legs. Then he moving away said: “All the inhabitants of the world should know that the power of kings is vain and trivial, and that none is worthy of the name of king but He whose command the heaven, earth and sea obey by eternal laws”. //

The story is intended to illustrate his piety – a prominent feature in his kingship,” he says. “He knows his power is nothing besides that of God.”
(Westcott, Katheryn. “Is King Canute Misunderstood?” BBC News, May 2011.)

Robert Goddard, a Massachusetts-born physicist, launched the world’s first liquid-fueled rocket on this date 100 years ago.

It was not an overly impressive flight. The rocket, fueled by gasoline and liquid oxygen, rose just 41 feet into the air, and the flight lasted 2.5 seconds before it struck ice and snow.

Nevertheless, this rocket, named “Nell,” represented a historic achievement that would help launch the modern age of spaceflight. Three decades later, the first objects would begin to ride liquid-fueled rockets into space, followed shortly by humans. A little more than 40 years would pass before humans walked on the Moon.

To mark this historic moment, a few Ars staffers are sharing some of their most memorable launches. Please add yours in the comments below.

Technology like four-wheel steering and variable valve timing debuted in the Prelude.

Twenty‑five Big Boy locomotives were originally built for Union Pacific to haul heavy freight over Utah’s Wasatch Range during World War II. While eight were preserved after retirement more than six decades ago, Big Boy No. 4014 is the only one still in operation today.

Newton's meticulous investigation led to Chaloner's conviction for high treason in 1699. Despite Chaloner's desperate letters begging for mercy, Newton showed none—the counterfeiter was hanged, drawn, and quartered. Newton prosecuted dozens of other counterfeiters with similar determination, securing convictions that sent many to the gallows. By the time he became Master of the Mint in 1700, Newton had transformed the institution from a corrupt, inefficient operation into a formidable force against monetary crime.

Newton remained Master of the Mint until his death in 1727, overseeing the Great Recoinage that stabilized England's currency and earning a salary that made him wealthy. The man who discovered the laws of gravity proved equally adept at enforcing the laws of the land, demonstrating that genius could be applied to practical affairs with devastating effectiveness. His tenure showed that even the greatest scientific mind of his age understood that knowledge without action meant nothing when his nation's economic survival hung in the balance.

Newton's aggressive campaign against counterfeiting and his reorganization of the Royal Mint had profound and lasting effects on British monetary policy and economic stability. The Great Recoinage he supervised replaced degraded, clipped coins with new standardized currency, which helped restore public confidence in English money and facilitated trade both domestically and internationally. His transformation of the Mint into an efficient, professional institution established administrative standards that influenced government operations for generations. Perhaps most significantly, Newton's work helped establish the principle that monetary crimes were serious threats to national security deserving severe punishment, a precedent that shaped how governments worldwide would later approach financial crimes and the protection of currency integrity. //

Jeb Webb — Make America Friendly Again @Jeb_AI
·
Feb 28
One more Isaac Newton innovation: The ridges around the edge of our .10, .25 and .50 coins were a way to reduce counterfeiting.

During newtons time, coins were almost pure silver, and people would shave off edges, so coins were all different sizes. ridges put a stop to that.

The original Allied powers united because of a web of bilateral treaties activated in the wake of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand’s assassination by a Serbian nationalist on June 28, 1914. In a domino-like chain reaction, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia (July 28); Serbia’s protector, Russia, mobilized its forces to defend Serbia (July 30); and Austria-Hungary’s ally, Germany, declared war against Russia (August 1), which also necessitated declaring war against France (August 3). Germany’s plan for fighting France required it to first invade Belgium (August 3–4). Great Britain was obligated to defend Belgium, so it responded by declaring war against Germany (August 4). And as an ally of Great Britain, Japan declared war against Germany on August 23.

In 1971, Rev. Dr. William R. Tolbert Jr. became President of Liberia following the death of President William V. S. Tubman Sr. Departing from his predecessors, Tolbert sought to root out corruption and close the divide between the ruling class of America-Liberians, and the indigenous majority who had been marginalized since the republic's founding in 1847. Tolbert's reforms faced resistance from two fronts: entrenched elites and Western powers who saw their influence diminished, and the ethnic majority who regarded his agenda as too halting. By the late 1970s, domestic hardships set Tolbert's presidency in crisis. On April 12, 1980, the unrest erupted into a full-scale military coup when soldiers stormed the Executive Mansion killing President Tolbert and ending more than a century of Americo-Liberian rule. This was followed by the public executions of thirteen cabinet members on April 22, 1980. This is the untold story of Africa's least known reformer and the enduring societal aftermath of his murder.

Ts'o, Hohndel and the man himself spill beans on how checks in the mail and GPL made it all possible

The Indians who sold Manhattan were bilked, all right, but they didn’t mind—the land wasn’t theirs anyway //

By now it is probably too late to do anything about it, but the unsettling fact remains that the so-called sale of Manhattan Island to the Dutch in 1626 was a totally illegal deal; a group of Brooklyn Indians perpetrated the swindle, and they had no more right to sell Manhattan Island than the present mayor of White Plains would have to declare war on France. When the Manhattan Indians found out about it they were understandably furious, but by that time the Dutch had too strong a foothold to be dislodged—by the Indians, at any rate—and the eventual arrival of one-way avenues and the Hamburg Heaven Crystal Room was only a matter of time.

In the Age of Discovery, maps held closely guarded secrets for the kings, adventurers, and merchants who first acquired them.

The Lockheed L-1011 competed primarily with the DC-10. Whereas McDonnell Douglas had produced two successful jet airliners and built an extensive customer base, this was Lockheed's first jet-powered airliner. However, while McDonnell Douglas was able to get its aircraft out the door in a swift fashion, Lockheed faced several delays with its program, primarily centered around issues with the Rolls-Royce RB211.

Both aircraft were largely developed out of a request from American Airlines for a twin-engine widebody smaller than the Boeing 747. Both companies developed trijets due to restrictions on twin-engine operations over water, and Lockheed put extra effort into the Tristar's technology. It featured an advanced autopilot, an autoland system, and an automated emergency descent function. This was undoubtedly the most advanced subsonic airliner of its time. //

Charles
I think when the 767 came on the scene, that's what really killed the tristar. //

TJCrewChief
I had a friend that was a 747 and L1011 pilot for TWA. He just loved the Lockheed L1011.

He extolled the fly ability and called it a " Pilots Airplane."

Divers have located the wreck of the Lac La Belle, a luxury steamer that vanished in a violent gale in 1872, a discovery that came after nearly six decades of organized searching. //

The Lac La Belle left Milwaukee on October 13, 1872, bound for Grand Haven, Michigan. Captain William Gilcher commanded the ship that, along with passengers, carried barley, pork, flour, and whiskey.

A gale caused massive waves that battered the hull. A quickly spreading leak filled the hold, and when the pumps failed, the vessel sank stern-first into about 300 feet of water. //

Luke Warm
a day ago
I left Marquette Mi. the day the Edmund Fitzgerald was lost. My sister who lived there recommended I check out Presque Isle on my way back. I thought I was about to die. My car looked like it survived a roller over. The waves kept pushing me into the rocks, and the retreating waves trying to suck me into Superior. The Mackinaw bridge closed less than an hr after I crossed it heading south. The bridge looked like to world's biggest swing. I learned very quickly that you do not steer when the road your on is swinging. //

Shadd
20 hours ago
I've been to the Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum, up at Whitefish Point, MI. It's about 45 mins north of the Mackinac Bridge. I highly recommend it. //

Hank Reardon
16 hours ago
Readers interested in Great Lakes shipping and shipwreck history might also be interested in visiting the Great Lakes Maritime Heritage Center at Thunder Bay, Michigan.
https://thunderbay.noaa.gov/visit/great-lakes-maritime-heritage-center.html

Also, unrelated to Great Lakes shipwrecks but equally fascinating is the display of cargo from the 1865 wreck of the Missouri river steamboat Bertrand, discovered in 1968. The large amount of freight bound for the goldfields of Montana captures a snapshot of life in America and is meticulously displayed at the DeSoto National Wildlife Refuge, on the Missouri River north of Omaha.
https://www.fws.gov/refuge/desoto/steamboat-bertrand